the historical journey of siege weapons

To trace the history of the first catapult, one must return to the port city of Syracuse, in southeastern Sicily, in 399 BCE. At this time, Dionysius I, the tyrant of Syracuse, embarked on a military campaign across the island. He conquered several cities in Sicily and southern Italy, resisted the expansion of Carthaginian influence on the island, and made Syracuse the strongest and most prosperous Greek colony in the western Mediterranean.

He achieved this by investing heavily in the development of siege weapons, encouraging master craftsmen to create two types of machines to combat the Carthaginians' strong fortifications. “We have a unique example in which we can pinpoint a specific moment and say: This is where the revolution began,” says Dr. Michael Eisenberg of the Zinman Institute of Archeology at the University of Haifa.

Under Dionysius' supervision, two revolutionary siege weapons were developed: a mobile wooden siege tower on wheels, reaching several stories high, and a powerful catapult. The siege tower, pushed by dozens, if not hundreds, of warriors, provided height and protection, allowing attackers to breach the city walls. Warriors could cross walls using abandoned bridges, fire arrows through slots, and observe from an advantageous height, targeting defenders and preventing effective counterattacks, ultimately leading to the walls being breached and demolished.

The second weapon was the catapult, derived from the Greek term meaning “to throw down”, a ballistic device used to fire various projectiles. The catapult has evolved and improved over the years. In 399 BCE, the first catapult, known as the “ventral bow” because of its cocking mechanism, was built. This machine fired an arrow by pressing its rear against the operator's stomach and its front against the ground.

The catapult consisted of two parts: a bow and a central rod integrated into it, providing an effective firing range of 220 meters, 40 meters more than the composite bow. The composite bow, invented after the simple bow, was used by the horse archers of the Eurasian steppe peoples who invaded Europe, the Middle East and China.

Within a few years, the Mediterranean powers adopted the new war machine and developed it into two types: oxibeles for throwing spears and ballistae for throwing stone boulders. These devices, known collectively as ballistas (from the Greek word “ballein”, meaning to throw), were further classified into larger weapons called petrobolos (stone throwers) and smaller weapons called lithobolos (stone throwers).

“These machines were mounted on a large wooden chassis, their length could reach more than 8 meters, depending on the size of the projectile,” explained Dr. Eisenberg. “They were similar in concept to the simple ventral bow but more powerful: two horizontal arms were stretched by a winch until the trigger was released, with an effective firing range of approximately 300 meters.”

In the mid-4th century BCE, the catapult was improved for more power. “These improvements included two bronze drums, one for each arm, containing bundles of animal tendons or horsetail hair,” Dr. Eisenberg noted.

“The twisting of the tendons in the drum created stored energy, increasing as the material in the drum grew. Generally, aiming was indirect, with a firing range of between 200 and 400 yards. In the absence of tendons d With sufficient animal or ponytail hair, women contributed their hair to the war effort.

During the reign of Philip II, king of Macedon from 359 to 336 BCE, siege machines were greatly improved and later used by his son, Alexander the Great, during his conquests in the Middle East and Persia. Alexander is recognized for possessing some of the most advanced siege weapons of his time, both on land and sea.

Over the years, the Romans adopted these siege technologies. “As the Romans began to expand throughout the Mediterranean and beyond, they incorporated Greek weapons into their arsenal. This adoption sometimes led to confusion with nomenclature,” Dr. Eisenberg explained.

“The Romans called stone-throwing devices catapults and spear-firing machines ballistas, each with specific names such as the smaller spear thrower called Scorpion. They perfected these machines, standardizing their use across each cohort, with designs featuring two arms and two drums for increased power,” he added.

Dr. Eisenberg noted that a new siege weapon called an onager appeared on the battlefield in the late Roman period, in the 4th century CE. This machine had a single arm with a slingshot at the end to throw a stone ball.

“From this time until the Byzantine period, there was a regression in the development of war machines. In the 7th century, a weapon called a mangonel emerged. Derived from the Latin “mangano”, meaning “engine of war “It was used by the Chinese and operated by a lever and a long arm, requiring dozens or even hundreds of soldiers,” he said.

The evolution of siege warfare led to corresponding changes in fortifications beginning in the 4th century BCE. Each machine was designed based on the type, weight, and length of the projectile it was intended to use, sometimes with the help of notable figures like Archimedes.

For example, boulders weighing between 2.3 and 24 kg (5 to 53 lb) (with some exceptions up to 33 kg or 73 lb) were often marked with numbers to avoid confusion when transferring them to various gear. seat. Many marked rocks were discovered at Tel Dor and in fortresses and settlements besieged during events such as the Great Jewish Revolt against the Romans in Galilee and Jerusalem in the first century BCE.

A unique siege platform, or bastion, designed for the defenders' missiles has been discovered at Sussita, east of the Sea of ​​Galilee. Probably dating from the time of the Great Jewish Revolt (67 CE), it included basalt boulders weighing 13 kg, and limestone boulders fired by the besieging forces were found nearby.

“Siege weapons were built with precise measurements, requiring extensive knowledge and skill. Warriors transported these machines in disassembled states and assembled them on site near their military targets. The Roman army excelled in logistics and maintained tight siege rings Each Roman legion had a well-organized structure, including the 'legion artillery officer,'” Dr. Eisenberg explained.

In the 12th century CE, a new war machine called a trebuchet was invented in the Mediterranean region. This device, an evolution of the mangonne, included a large arm with a wooden box filled with stones at its end, serving as a counterweight pendulum. In front of the opposite end of the lever was another axis, and at its end a slingshot with a heavy stone increased the throwing speed, allowing the projectiles to travel 200-300 meters.

This advance allowed the launch of munitions weighing hundreds of kilograms, necessitating modifications to the fortifications, which were struggling to withstand such violent attacks. However, the trebuchet's slow loading time meant that mangonels continued to be used alongside it for efficiency.

With the advent of gunpowder in the 16th century, the use of these ancient machines declined. However, as recently demonstrated near the Lebanese border, these historic weapons can still be used in modern times.